Virtual and “Real-Life” Wall/Rock Climbing Motor Movement Comparisons and Video Gaming Pedagogical Perceptions

The purpose of this study was to examine similarites and differences between motion-based video games (MBVGs) and “real-life” wall/rock climbing and determine the perceived usefulness of utilizing MBVGs when trying to teach someone how to authentically wall/rock climb. A mixed-methods multi-phase intervention with two randomized groups – wall/rock climbing first (WF; n = 12) and MBVGs first (GF; n = 12) utilizing Xbox One’s Kinect Sports Rivals Rock Climbing – was used. All participants had no prior climbing experience. Results indicated the participants perceived MBVGs and authentic wall/rock climbing were similar concerning climbing tactics/strategies and arm movements, but were different regarding effort and leg, finger/grip, and jumping movements. Moreover, both the MBVGs and “real-life” wall/rock climbing experiences were needed for a significant difference in the participants’ perceived understanding of both the necessary motor skills and tactics/strategies needed to wall/rock climb. In sum, MBVGs may be used as a pedagogical tool to teach strategies of wall/rock climbing, particularly with beginners or those with special needs, but caution must be heeded due to perceived effort and lower extremity movement differences compared to authentic climbing.

Video gaming has reached epic proportions within the United States. Annual computer and video game sales increased from $10.1 billion in 2009 to $15.4 billion in2013(Siwek,2014). Fifty-ninepercentofallAmericans play video games with the average gamer being 31 years old and 48% being female (Entertainment Software Association [ESA], 2014). The average US household has two video game players with 51% of these households owning at least one dedicated game console (ESA, 2014). Moreover, 88% of youth between 8 and 18 years play video games 3–4 times per week with average weekly playing times of over 16 h for boys and over 9 h for girls (Gentile, 2009). Likewise,on an average schoolday, 41.3% of US high school students play video or computer games (or use a computer for something other than school work) for at least 3 h (Kann et al., 2014).

More than two-thirds of Americans are overweight or obese (Institute of Medicine, 2015). Furthermore, less than one-quarter of American youth aged 12–15 years engage in the recommended daily amount of 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (PA) with a growing trend of decreased PA and increased obesity for this population (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Moreover, one study involving children 12 years and younger revealed that a strong relationship exists between video game use and increased weight status, whereas television viewing does not, indicating that time spent playing video games (not watching television) replaces PA for this population (Vandewater, Shim, & Caplovitz, 2004).

In concert with the massive popularity of video gaming, motion-based video games (MBVGs) have been suggested to be used to increase PA and combat obesity. Also known as exergaming or active video gaming, MBVGs utilize software and motion-sensor cameras, flooring, or an infrared sensor to track physicalmovementsmadebythe player(s) andusually display them via an on-screen avatar (Jenny, Hushman, & Hushman, 2013). Commercially, the most common MBVGs systems include the Xbox Kinect (Microsoft, Redmond, WA), the Nintendo Wii (Minamiku Kyoto, Japan), and the PlayStation 4 with motion camera (Sony Computer Entertainment, Tokyo, Japan). MBVGs are any video games which promote PA, including cardiovascular, strength, balance, or flexibility exercise (Oh & Yang, 2010).

MBVGs and energy expenditure. For health and fitness, the American College of Sports Medicine (2014) recommends at least 20–60 min of aerobic, neuromotor, and/or sports activities at least 5 days per week at a moderate intensity or 3 days per week at a vigorous intensity – respectively described as noticeable or substantial increases in breathing, sweating, and heart rate. Most studies regarding MBVGs investigate energy expenditure (EE) (i.e. calories burned) while playing. For example, Sween et al. (2014) reviewed 27 studies which researched MBVGs and PA and found a strong correlation between MBVGs and increased EE (up to 300% above resting levels), with the majority reaching moderate intensity – in line with the ACSM’s guidelines. Likewise, Gao, Chen, Paso, and Pope (2015) performed a meta-analysis of 35 studies investigating the effects of MBVGs on children and adolescents’ health outcomes and concluded that MBVGs increases EE, heart rate, metabolic equivalents (METs), VO2 max, and PA from resting.

MBVGs in grades P-12 physical education. Companies have tried to capitalize on the popularity of MBVGs through advertising various MBVGs systems directed toward P-12 physical education (PE). For example, possibly the most popular MBVGs – Dance Dance Revolution (DDR; Konami, Redwood City, CA, https://www.konami.com/ddr) – created a “classroom edition” which permits up to 48 students to play at the same time through wireless dance mats interfaced with a primary game console. Additionally, C’Motion (Indianapolis, IN, http://start-a-cmo tion.com) offers a music-driven MBVGs experience where a C’Motion expert provides the equipment and manages the MBVGs session for PE classes or special fitness events. MBVGs have even become cross-curricular endeavors within P-12 schools as evidenced by the TECHFIT Project (Teaching Engineering Concepts to Harness Future Innovators and Technologists, http://techfit.tech.purdue.edu), where middle school students and their science, technology, math, and PE teachers collaboratively design and implement original MBVGs. The program attempts to demonstrate how information technology can increase enjoyable PA. Alternatively, PE teachers have been encouraged to create their own MBVGs facility within their school through a step-by-step guide by Wilson, Darden, and Meyler (2010).

MBVGs in grades P-12 physical education. Companies have tried to capitalize on the popularity of MBVGs through advertising various MBVGs systems directed toward P-12 physical education (PE). For example, possibly the most popular MBVGs – Dance Dance Revolution (DDR; Konami, Redwood City, CA, https://www.konami.com/ddr) – created a “classroom edition” which permits up to 48 students to play at the same time through wireless dance mats interfaced with a primary game console. Additionally, C’Motion (Indianapolis, IN, http://start-a-cmo tion.com) offers a music-driven MBVGs experience where a C’Motion expert provides the equipment and manages the MBVGs session for PE classes or special fitness events. MBVGs have even become cross-curricular endeavors within P-12 schools as evidenced by the TECHFIT Project (Teaching Engineering Concepts to Harness Future Innovators and Technologists, http://techfit.tech.purdue.edu), where middle school students and their science, technology, math, and PE teachers collaboratively design and implement original MBVGs. The program attempts to demonstrate how information technology can increase enjoyable PA. Alternatively, PE teachers have been encouraged to create their own MBVGs facility within their school through a step-by-step guide by Wilson, Darden, and Meyler (2010).

Hayes and Silberman (2007) note that video games can assist with the construction of mental models where, according to cognitive theory, players store records of virtual and actual experiences and construct intricate connections among them, which may improve future performance. They continue by noting that video games can portray a multitude of possible situations, which allows players to develop a diverse set of mental models – allowing for improved decision-making in authentic environments. These strategic and tactical similarities may lead some practitioners in utilizing MBVGs as a possible tool to teach someone certain facets of “reallife” wall/rock climbing, as will be discussed further below.

The second purpose of this study was to investigate the perceived usefulness of utilizing MBVGs when trying to teach someone how to authentically wall/ rock climb. Items 3 and 4 of Table II demonstrate that both the MBVGs and “real-life” wall/rock climbing experiences were needed for a significant difference in the participants’ perceived understanding of both the necessary motor skills and tactics/ strategies needed to wall/rock climb. Thus, the MBVGs can be helpful if paired with the authentic experience. The following qualitative findings, summarized in Table IV, provide further possible explanations as to why MBVGs may be useful in teaching “real-life” wall/rock climbing.

First, it was perceived that MBVGs provide a basic introduction to wall/rock climbing that would be beneficial to use when teaching a beginner. According to motor learning theorists Fitts and Posner (1967), learners move through three stages as they acquire a motor skill: (1) cognitive stage (where a basic movement pattern is developed), (2) associative stage (where the movement pattern is refined), and (3) autonomous stage (where the performance is virtually automatic). Using wall/rock climbing as an example, beginners would start in the cognitive stage where they would try to understand the required movements of wall/ rock climbing, often through trial and error. In addition, performance is inconsistent and characterized by numerous errors. In conjunction with verbal instructions and demonstrations, the practitioner must assist the learner in detecting and correcting errors as they attempt to move the learner toward the associative stage.

In this study, quantitative results indicated that the participants generally did not feel the physical actions required for the MBVGs were the same on the “real-life” climbing wall, but the tactics and strategies needed for the MBVGs appeared to be similar. However, both the MBVGs and “real-life” wall/rock climbing experiences were needed for a significant difference in the participants’ perceived understanding of both the necessary motor skills and tactics/strategies needed to wall/rock climb, indicating that MBVGs can be helpful if paired with the authentic experience. Similarly, qualitative results indicated that the participants perceived MBVGs and “real-life” wall/rock climbing were similar concerning climbing tactics/strategies and arm movements, but were different regarding effort and leg, finger/grip, and jumping movements. In summary, MBVGs may be used as a pedagogical tool to teach strategies of wall/rock climbing, particularly with beginners or those with special needs, but caution must be heeded due to perceived effort and lower extremity movement differences compared to authentic climbing.

Future research might build upon this study and include a larger sample size or longer treatment duration. In addition, each MBVGs is different. Results may not generalize beyond the specific MBVGs or sample (i.e. beginner wall/rock climbers) used in this study. Future studies could research other MBVGs and compare them to the authentic sport and/or utilize experienced athletes within that sport. Moreover, a study which measures student learning while playing MBVGs in PE might be useful. Finally, a future study could examine the effectiveness of utilizing MBVGs in adapted PE.